Women in Australia
2004
Women in Australia
2004
Australia is not a homogenous society. Its people come from a multiplicity of different cultures and backgrounds. While it is true to say that large sectors of the population share factors in common such as English or Irish ancestry (34 per cent and ten per cent respectively in 2001) or live in major cities (two-thirds in 2001), sizeable proportions of the population have very different characteristics. Australia has large components of rural dwellers and those born in countries where English is not the main language, not to mention an increasing Indigenous population. Some of the characteristics of these latter three populations will be described in this chapter.1
Since British colonisation, Australia has been a nation of immigrants. The first immigrants were largely involuntary. However, as the 19th century progressed numbers to our shores increased. A key factor was the excitement generated by two gold rushes, firstly in Victoria and then later in Western Australia. Others emigrated due to the perceived opportunities offered by a 'new' land.
By 1901, 23 per cent of residents (857,576) stated that they were born overseas. The Population Census article, A Snapshot of Australia, 1901 notes that:
In 1901, the three main countries of birth for those born overseas were:The proportion of overseas born in the 2001 Population Census was similar at 22 per cent. Of those born overseas: The three main countries of birth in the 2001 Census were:
- United Kingdom: 18.0 per cent (679,159)
- Other European Countries: 2.0 per cent (74,673)
- Asian Countries: 1.3 per cent (47,014).2
- United Kingdom: 5.5 per cent (1,036,245)
- New Zealand: 1.9 per cent (355,765)
- Italy: 1.2 per cent (218,718).3
Australia has higher proportions of English speaking people who were born overseas compared to those from countries where English is not the main language. However, the following analysis will focus on those from countries where English is not the main language.4
* Note that if a person speaks a language other than English at home, it does not necessarily mean they were born overseas
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2002, 2001 Census Basic Community Profile and Snapshot Australia, Canberra. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/c5e603bbbe532a7aca256c63007c0cbc, viewed 19 March 2004.
This includes all countries other than the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, the United States, New Zealand and Australia.
In Australia in 2001, the median age for both women and men born in a non-MESC country was older than for their counterparts in the population as a whole at 45 years compared with 36 years for the total female population and 45 years compared with 34 years for the total population of men. Only five per cent of this population were aged under 15 years, compared to 21 per cent of the population as a whole.
Compared to Australia's total female population, in 2001, marriage, divorce and fertility rates were slightly higher for non-MESC women at 12 persons per 1,000 persons, (crude marriage rate), seven persons per 1,000 persons (crude divorce rate) and 1.8 (total fertility rate).
The corresponding rates for the total female population were 11 persons per 1,000 persons (crude marriage rate), six persons per 1,000 persons (crude divorce rate) and 1.7 (total fertility rate).
In 2001, 100 per cent of non-MESC girls aged 16 were still at school compared with 93 per cent of the total 16 year old female population. The equivalent figures for boys of 16 were 93 per cent and 82 per cent, respectively.
Non-MESC females had similar rates of educational attainment to the total female population at 42 per cent and 43 per cent with non-school qualifications, respectively.
Non-MESC women's labour force participation rate in 2001 was lower than the total Australian female population (44 per cent compared to 55 per cent), and lower than their male counterparts (63 per cent). However, these women were less likely to engage in part-time work at 40 per cent of non-MESC women, compared with 45 per cent of the total Australian female population.
In 2001, 49 per cent of these women were employed in higher skill level occupations. The corresponding figure for Australia's total female population was 56 per cent.
Higher skill level occupations are comprised of Managers/Administrators, Professionals, Associate Professionals, Advanced Clerical/Service Workers, and Tradespersons/Related Workers.
In 2000-01, women born in non-MESC countries who worked full time earned slightly less per week than full-time employed women in the total resident population while women in this category who worked part-time earned somewhat more per week. Both populations of women earned less than non-MESC men and the total population of Australian men.
In 2000-01, the mean gross weekly earnings for non-MESC women were $563 and the weekly earnings for all women were $536. Non-MESC males earned $770, while the total male population earned the most at $806 per week.
A higher proportion of non-MESC women relied on a government pension or allowance as their main form of income (44 per cent versus 36 per cent for all Australian women).
In 2001, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples made up two per cent of the Australian population.
The health and living conditions of Indigenous peoples continue to lag well behind those of the Australian community as a whole.
In 2001, Indigenous life expectancy at birth was close to 20 years less than for the general Australian population - for Indigenous women, 63 years compared to 82 years for the Australian female population as a whole. The median age was lower in the Indigenous population and women's fertility rate higher, compared to the general population at 2.1 compared with 1.7.
A sizeable proportion of Indigenous people lived in rented accommodation, including 67 per cent of Indigenous women, compared to 24 per cent of women in the general population.5
According to the publication, The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples:
A significant number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons, particularly those in remote areas, are faced with a range of disadvantages in relation to housing. They are more likely to live in improvised dwellings, in dwellings with a greater number of persons, or in dwellings requiring an extra bedroom(s), and less likely to own their own homes. In discrete Indigenous communities, issues such as access to safe and reliable drinking water, adequate sewerage systems and drainage, electricity and rubbish collection impact on the ability of Indigenous persons to become, and stay healthy.6
In 2001, Indigenous girls and boys at age 16 were much less likely to be at school than the general population. Indigenous women and men aged 15 years and over were less likely to have a non-school qualification at 25 per cent compared with 41 per cent of the total female population. For men the corresponding proportions were 31 per cent and 51 per cent, respectively.
In 2001, the unemployment rate among Indigenous women was more than double that in the general female population, and the labour force participation rate was substantially lower (43 per cent compared to 53 per cent). There are also differences in occupational profile for indigenous persons in general as the following graph shows.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003, The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 2003, (Cat. No. 4704.0), Canberra.
It is difficult to directly compare Indigenous and non-Indigenous labour force participation due to the implementation of the CDEP scheme in Indigenous communities.
The CDEP scheme was first introduced on a 'pilot scale' in 1977, and has spread rapidly throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) provides access to the CDEP scheme to (mainly) Indigenous persons across Australia. The main aim of CDEP is to create local employment opportunities in remote Indigenous communities where the labour market might not otherwise offer employment. The CDEP scheme involves a trade off of individual 'dole' entitlements for a community entitlement that is managed through community based work. CDEP participants are defined as employed, however, in most instances, only part-time employment is available under the scheme.7
According to the 2001 Population Census, the proportion of CDEP participants (as measured by the Special Indigenous Form (SIF)) was 15 per cent for women and 20 per cent for men.
As the SIF is only used in remote areas and the CDEP program has spread to non-remote areas, the coverage of CDEP data is incomplete.8
Australia is very largely an urban society. In 2001 only 12 per cent of women and 14 per cent of men lived in rural areas. In these areas a higher proportion of people were Australian born compared to urban areas.
Many people living in rural areas are involved in the farming sector. According to Barr, in his Australian Census Analytic Program (ACAP) publication, The Micro-Dynamics of Change in Australian Agriculture: 1976-2001, the profile of the farming population is an ageing one.
Barr notes that:
Entry to farming has changed little since 1996. After a rapidly declining rate in the entry rate of young persons during 1970s and 80s, entry of younger persons seems to have stabilised at new low levels. The major form of entry is increasingly mid-career, rather than through informal family apprenticeship. Exits rates from agriculture continued to decline between 1996 and 2001, particularly for women and for older persons. It appears that increasing numbers of farmers are choosing to continue to farm ... in the absence of a next generation interested in taking over the business.9
In 2001, compared to people in urban areas, people in rural areas were more likely to be living in their own house and to own it outright, at around 47 per cent compared with around 38 per cent.
Reported health conditions were generally similar for both rural and urban women and men. However, urban women were more likely to report high to very high levels of psychological stress, at 16 per cent, compared to 12 per cent for their rural counterparts.
(The stress levels described here are based on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale-10 (K10). For more information, please see Glossary).
At age 16 years, the proportion of rural girls still at school was almost that of urban 16 year old girls, at 81 per cent, compared to 82 per cent in 2001. This was higher than for rural boys (74 per cent) and urban boys (77 per cent). However, women in rural areas were less likely than their urban counterparts and less likely than both rural and urban men, to have a non-school qualification.
The labour force participation rate in 2001 was slightly higher in rural areas, for both women and men at 55 per cent and 69 per cent compared with 53 per cent and 68 per cent for those in urban areas. The unemployment rate was slightly lower in rural areas at six per cent for rural females, compared with seven per cent for urban females. The corresponding figures for males were seven per cent and eight per cent, respectively.
Both rural and urban women had a lower median gross weekly income than rural and urban men. At $270 dollars, rural women had the lowest median gross weekly income.
1 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2002, 2001 Census Basic Community Profile and Snapshot Australia, Canberra. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/c5e603bbbe532a7aca256c63007c0cbc, viewed 19 March 2004.
2 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2002, 1901 Australian Snapshot, Canberra. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/c5e603bbbe532a7aca256c63007c0cbc, viewed 19 March 2004.
3 Ibid.
4 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001 (re-issue), Census of Population and Housing: Selected Social and Housing Characteristics, Australia, (Cat. No. 2015.0), Canberra.
5 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003, The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 2003, (Cat. No. 4704.0), Canberra.
6 Ibid.
7 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003, The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 2003, (Cat. No. 4704.0), Canberra.
8 Hunter, B.H. 2004, Australian Census Analytic Program: Indigenous Australians in the Contemporary Labour Market 2001, (Cat. No. 2052.0), Canberra.
9 Barr, N. 2004, Australian Census Analytic Program: The Micro-Dynamics of Change in Australian Agriculture: 1976-2001, (Cat. No. 2055.0), ABS, Canberra.
| Born in non-MESC | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Units | Females | Males | Females | Males | |
| Total population(c) | '000 | 1318.8 | 1269.8 | 9502.7 | 9266.5 |
| Population | |||||
| Aged less than 15 years | % | 5.0 | 5.4 | 20.0 | 21.7 |
| Aged 65 and over | % | 17.2 | 17.0 | 14.0 | 11.3 |
| Median age | years | 44 | 45 | 36 | 34 |
| Recent migrants(d) | % | 16.9 | 16.1 | 3.4 | 3.3 |
| Citizenship rate | % | 74.0 | 74.3 | 88.4 | 88.0 |
| Spoke English poorly/ | |||||
| not at all(e) | % | 18.5 | 13.3 | 2.8 | 2.1 |
| Total fertility rate (per woman) | rate | 1.8 | .. | 1.7 | .. |
| Crude marriage rate(f) | rate | 11.9 | 11.2 | 10.5 | 10.7 |
| Spouse from same country | % | 38.0 | 41.4 | 70.8 | 70.8 |
| Crude divorce rate(f) | rate | 7.1 | 5.6 | 5.7 | 5.5 |
| Health | |||||
| Crude death rate(f) | rate | 6.0 | 8.6 | 6.3 | 6.9 |
| National Health Priority Area | |||||
| (NHPA) conditions(g) | |||||
| Asthma | % | 6.2 | 5.8 | 12.6 | 10.6 |
| Cancer | % | 1.6 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.9 |
| Heart and circulatory | |||||
| conditions | % | 21.4 | 17.5 | 18.8 | 14.8 |
| Mental and behavioural | |||||
| problems | % | 11.1 | 6.5 | 10.6 | 8.5 |
| Injuries | % | 2.5 | 3.1 | 2.9 | 4.4 |
| Arthritis/osteoporosis | % | 20.6 | 13.1 | 16.9 | 11.3 |
| Diabetes mellitus/ | |||||
| high blood sugar levels | % | 5.6 | 6.6 | 3.3 | 3.2 |
| Reported level of psychological | |||||
| distress(h) | |||||
| Low | % | 57.8 | 67.7 | 60.0 | 68.8 |
| Moderate | % | 23.3 | 19.6 | 24.7 | 21.3 |
| High | % | 12.6 | 8.5 | 10.9 | 7.2 |
| Very high | % | 6.4 | 4.2 | 4.4 | 2.7 |
| Education | |||||
| 16 year olds still at school | % | 100.0 | 92.7 | 92.8 | 81.5 |
| With non-school qualification(i) | % | 42.4 | 49.5 | 43.2 | 49.0 |
| Labour force | |||||
| Labour force | |||||
| participation rate(i) | % | 43.9 | 63.4 | 55.1 | 71.7 |
| Unemployment rate | |||||
| of recent migrants(d) | % | 15.6 | 14.2 | 12.7 | 9.9 |
| Part-time workers | % | 40.4 | 15.4 | 45.4 | 14.7 |
| Without leave entitlements | % | 29.2 | 23.2 | 31.5 | 23.6 |
| Average weekly hours worked | hours | 30.4 | 39.3 | 29.0 | 39.7 |
| Employed full-time in higher | |||||
| skill level occupations(i) | % | 49.4 | 63.9 | 56.1 | 66.2 |
| Income | |||||
| Mean gross weekly earnings | $ | 563 | 770 | 536 | 806 |
| Full-time employees | $ | 715 | 852 | 723 | 893 |
| Part-time employees | $ | 328 | 324 | 312 | 323 |
| Government pensions/ | |||||
| allowances as main source | |||||
| of income(k) | % | 43.9 | 30.2 | 36.4 | 22.7 |
(a) Main English-speaking countries include the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, the United States of America and New Zealand.
(b) Figures in this table come from different sources and are subject to different scope inclusions and exclusions. For further details, see the source's Explanatory Notes. Figures as at August, except for births, deaths, marriages, divorces and health (calendar year), education (May), and income (financial year).
(c) Total population in Census, excluding overseas visitors.
(d) Migrants who arrived in Australia between 1996 and 2001.
(e) Persons aged 5 years and over.
(f) Per 1,000 persons. Female/male marriage rates are higher than the crude marriage rate for all persons because the sex-specific rates use the same numbers for marriages, but only the specific sex for the population denominator.
(g) For the NHPA conditions, 'Cancer' includes malignant neoplasms and benign neoplasms and neoplasms of an uncertain nature; 'Heart and circulatory conditions' include all diseases, symptoms and signs involving the circulatory system; 'Mental and behavioural problems' include all mental health and behaviour problems, symptoms and signs reported by respondent and 'Diabetes mellitus' includes diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 and type unkown and high sugar levels in blood\urine.
(h) Persons aged 18 years and over, as measured by the Kessler 10 scale, from which a score of 10 to 50 is produced: 'Low (10-15); 'Moderate' (16-21); 'High' (22-29); 'Very high' (30-50).
(i) Persons aged 15-64 years.
(j) Managers/administrators, professionals, associate professionals, advanced clerical/service workers, and tradespersons/related workers, as a proportion of persons employed full-time.
(k) Excludes dependants aged 15 years and over.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Census of Population and Housing, 2001, unpublished data; Births, 2001, unpublished data; Deaths, 2001, unpublished data; Education and Work, May 2001, unpublished data; Labour Force, August 2001, unpublished data; Survey of Employee Earnings, Benefits and Trade Union Membership, August 2001, unpublished data; National Health Survey, Summary of Results, 2001 unpublished data; Survey of Income and Housing, 2000-01 unpublished data.
| Indigenous Australians | Total persons | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Units | Females | Males | Females | Males | |
| Total Population(b) | '000 | 208.0 | 202.0 | 9502.7 | 9266.5 |
| Population | |||||
| Aged less than 15 years | % | 37.7 | 40.8 | 20.0 | 21.7 |
| Aged 65 and over | % | 3.1 | 2.5 | 14.0 | 11.3 |
| Median age | years | 21 | 19 | 36 | 34 |
| Living in rural areas(c) | % | 25.1 | 27.1 | 12.3 | 13.7 |
| Torres Strait Islander origin(d) | % | 10.4 | 10.8 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
| Indigenous language spoken | |||||
| at home | % | 12.2 | 12.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Total fertility rate (per woman) | rate | 2.1 | .. | 1.7 | .. |
| Housing | |||||
| Living in rented accomodation | % | 66.5 | 63.7 | 22.9 | 22.7 |
| Health | |||||
| Life expectancy at birth(e) | years | 62.8 | 56.3 | 82.4 | 77.0 |
| Standardised death rate(f) | rate | 9.3 | 16.1 | 4.3 | 6.8 |
| Education | |||||
| 16 year olds still at school | % | 55.5 | 50.2 | 83.6 | 78.8 |
| With non-school qualification(g) | % | 25.3 | 30.6 | 41.2 | 51.4 |
| Labour force | |||||
| Labour force participation rate(g) | % | 44.2 | 60.6 | 55.3 | 71.0 |
| Unemployment rate(g) | % | 17.6 | 21.8 | 6.6 | 8.0 |
| Employed working on CDEP(g)(h)(i) | % | 15.4 | 19.7 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
| Employed working part-time(g)(i) | % | 50.9 | 35.3 | 47.3 | 20.2 |
| Income | |||||
| Mean weekly individual income(g) | $ | 307 | 347 | 390 | 581 |
| Weekly income less than | |||||
| $500 per week(g)(j) | % | 83.8 | 76.2 | 71.7 | 50.1 |
(a) Figures in this table come from different sources and are subject to different scope inclusions and exclusions. For further details, see the source's Explanatory Notes. Figures as at August, except for births and deaths (calendar year).
(b) Total population in Census, excluding overseas visitors.
(c) Bounded localities (rural areas with population of 200 to 999) and rural balance.
(d) Includes persons who are of Torres Strait Island origin only or both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin.
(e) Life expectancy has been calculated for 1999-2001 period. Indigenous life expectancy based on data from all States and Territories except Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory.
(f) Rate per 1,000 population. Indigenous death rate has been calculated as the indirect standardised death rate (see source listed below for more details).
(g) Persons aged 15 years and over.
(h) Community Development Employment Projects.
(i) As a proportion of total employed.
(j) Excludes 'not stated' indigenous status and 'not stated' income.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Census of Population and Housing, 2001, unpublished data; Births, 2001 (Cat. no. 3301.0); Deaths, 2001 (Cat. no. 3302.0).
| Living in rural areas(b) |
Living in urban areas(c) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Units | Females | Males | Females | Males | |
| Total population(d) | '000 | 1156.2 | 1259.7 | 8340.5 | 8003.9 |
| Population | |||||
| Aged less than 15 years | % | 23.4 | 23.0 | 19.6 | 21.5 |
| Aged 15-24 years | % | 10.8 | 12.1 | 13.6 | 14.4 |
| Aged 25-44 years | % | 28.7 | 27.0 | 30.1 | 30.1 |
| Aged 45-64 years | % | 26.6 | 27.4 | 22.3 | 22.7 |
| Aged 65 years and over | % | 10.5 | 10.5 | 14.5 | 11.4 |
| Median age | years | 37 | 37 | 36 | 34 |
| Born overseas(e) | % | 16.4 | 16.7 | 28.7 | 29.3 |
| In main English-speaking | |||||
| countries(f) | % | 7.0 | 6.6 | 8.6 | 9.0 |
| In other countries | % | 4.3 | 4.5 | 14.6 | 14.5 |
| Housing | |||||
| Living in own house | |||||
| (owned outright)(g) | % | 47.5 | 46.2 | 39.0 | 37.8 |
| Health | |||||
| National Health Priority Area | |||||
| (NHPA) conditions(h) | |||||
| Asthma | % | 11.3 | 10.2 | 12.7 | 10.7 |
| Cancer | % | 1.5 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 1.9 |
| Heart and circulatory | |||||
| conditions | % | 16.4 | 14.3 | 19.1 | 14.9 |
| Mental and behavioural | |||||
| problems | % | 10.3 | 6.3 | 10.7 | 8.8 |
| Arthritis/osteoporosis | % | 16.2 | 12.1 | 16.9 | 11.2 |
| Diabetes mellitus/high blood | |||||
| sugar levels | % | 2.0 | 2.1 | 3.4 | 3.4 |
| Injuries | % | 3.1 | 5.5 | 2.9 | 4.3 |
| Reported level of psychological | |||||
| distress(i) | |||||
| Low | % | 66.6 | 73.9 | 59.4 | 68.2 |
| Moderate | % | 21.6 | 19.5 | 25.0 | 21.5 |
| High | % | 8.6 | 4.5 | 11.1 | 7.5 |
| Very high | % | 3.2 | 2.1 | 4.5 | 2.8 |
| Reported Pap smear test in last | |||||
| 2 years(j) | % | 67.0 | .. | 60.3 | .. |
| Participation in breast cancer | |||||
| screening(j) | % | 30.9 | .. | 26.9 | .. |
| Education | |||||
| 16 year olds still at school(k) | % | 80.9 | 73.6 | 81.5 | 77.2 |
| With non-school qualification(l) | % | 38.0 | 46.7 | 41.6 | 52.1 |
| Labour force | |||||
| Labour force participation rate(l) | % | 54.7 | 68.6 | 52.7 | 67.9 |
| Unemployment rate(l) | % | 5.7 | 7.0 | 6.8 | 8.1 |
| Employed in production | |||||
| industries(l)(m) | % | 24.8 | 53.1 | 10.7 | 31.6 |
| Proportion of youth unemployed(n) | % | 6.8 | 7.8 | 7.8 | 10.0 |
| Income | |||||
| Median gross weekly income(l) | $ | 270 | 431 | 294 | 510 |
(a) Figures in this table come from different sources and are subject to different scope inclusions and exclusions. For further details, see the source's Explanatory Notes. Figures as at August, except for health (calendar year).
(b) Rural areas consist of Bounded localities (200,999 persons) and Rural balance (remainder of the State/Territory).
(c) Urban areas consist of Major urban areas (100,000 or more persons) and Other urban areas (100,099,999 persons).
(d) Total population in Census, excluding overseas visitors.
(e) Includes country of birth not stated or inadequately described.
(f) Main English speaking countries include the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, the United States of America and New Zealand.
(g) Proportion of persons aged 15 years and over living in fully owned homes.
(g) For the NHPA conditions, 'Cancer' includes malignant neoplasms and benign neoplasms and neoplasms of an uncertain nature; 'Heart and circulatory conditions' include all diseases, symptoms and signs involving the circulatory system; 'Mental and behavioural problems' include all mental health and behaviour problems, symptoms and signs reported by respondent and 'Diabetes mellitus' includes diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 and type unkown and high sugar levels in blood\urine.
(i) Persons aged 18 years and over, as measured by the Kessler 10 scale, from which a score of 10 to 50 is produced: 'Low (10-15); 'Moderate' (16-21); 'High' (22-29); 'Very high' (30-50).
(j) Aged 18 years and over, self-reported participation.
(k) Proportion of persons aged 16 attending secondary school.
(l) Persons aged 15 years and over.
(m) Proportion of employed persons working in agriculture, forestry and fishing, mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas and water, and construction.
(n) Proportion of persons aged 15-24 years who are unemployed.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Census of Population and Housing, 2001, unpublished data; National Health Survey, 2001, unpublished data.
| Women in Australia 2004 | Chapter 9. Selected Population Groups |