Women in Australia
2004
Women in Australia
2004
Health is a broad subject, therefore this chapter does not attempt to cover every permutation of physical and mental well being. However, topics which are broadranging and current are discussed, along with subject matter of particular relevance to women. A key topic for discussion is life expectancy as it is is one measure of health status which reveals much about the health of women and men in the Australian population.
Life expectancy continues to increase for the total Australian population. One way to examine increasing life expectancy is to look at proportions of people who survive to a certain age over time. According to the publication, Measuring Australia's Progress:
Between 1898 and 1998 the changing proportion of the population surviving to the ages of 50 and 70 increased dramatically.
In the late 1890s only about 64 per cent of men and 68 per cent of women lived to be 50 years old. At the end of the 1990s these figures stood at 94 per cent and 97 per cent respectively.
Change was even more rapid when one considers the proportion of the population living to be 70. At the end of the nineteenth century only 34 per cent of men and less than 43 per cent of women reached their seventieth birthday. By the end of the 1990s these figures stood at 76 per cent and 85 per cent respectively.1
In stark contrast however, are the life expectancy figures for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Deaths 2002, (most current data available),
The 2001 infant mortality rate for Indigenous Australians (10.6 deaths per 1,000 live births) was over twice the infant mortality rate for all Australians (5.3).
The median age at death for Indigenous people in 2001, was 54 years, around 24 years less than the median age for all deaths (79 years).
Indigenous life expectancy at birth was about 20 years less than for the total population, 56 years for Indigenous males compared to 77 years for all Australian males and 63 years for Indigenous females compared to 82 years for all Australian females.2
Many factors have contributed to both the total Australian population of women and men living longer. These include advances in medical technology, public health measures such as the earlier detection of some illnesses, and healthier lifestyles.3
In addition, improvements in nutrition and sanitation have meant infectious diseases are no longer affecting people as they did one hundred years ago.4
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Australian Social Trends, 2003 (Cat no. 41.2.0), Canberra.
In 2002, according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) the leading cause of death for women and men was Ischaemic heart disease. Deaths from Ischaemic heart disease comprised 20 per cent of all male deaths (13,855) and 19 per cent of all female deaths (12,208).
Women were more likely to die of Cerebrovascular diseases than men at 12 per cent of all female deaths. In comparison, seven per cent of all men died from Cerebrovascular illnesses. (Cerebrovascular diseases include such conditions as stroke).
According to the AIHW data, in 2002, men were more likely to complete suicide attempts at 1,817 men (three per cent of all male deaths), compared with 503 women (less than one per cent of all female deaths).
Men were also more likely to die in transport accidents at 1,334 men (or two per cent of all male deaths). In comparison, 492 women died in transport accidents (again, less than one per cent of all female deaths).
(a) Mortality rates are age-standardised to the Australian 2001 Standard Population and are expressed per 100,000 population. Source: http://www.aihw.gov.au/mortality/data/current_data.html.
Standardised death rates enable the comparison of death rates between populations with different age structures by relating them to a standard population.5
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Deaths, 2002, (Cat. no. 3302.0), Canberra.
In 2002, there was a larger proportion of both female and male Indigenous deaths at earlier ages compared with the total female and male population.6
Deaths, 2002 notes that "... for females, the proportion of deaths occurring under the age of one year and during the age groups 15-24 years and 25-34 years were over eight times higher for Indigenous females than the total female population ..."7
(Please note that data issues relating to coverage of Indigenous deaths mean that caution should be exercised when examining Indigenous deaths).8
The suicide rate for both females and males has remained fairly constant over the last 20 years. However, males are much more likely to complete a suicide attempt than are females. In 2002, the suicide rate for females was five per 100,000 persons compared with 19 per 100,000 persons for males, with 2,320 registered deaths attributed to suicide. However, Deaths from External Causes notes that: "While males were much more likely than females to die from suicide, hospital separation data indicate that females were more likely to make a non-fatal attempt at suicide".9
A long-term health condition is one which is expected to last six months or more. In 2001, females were more likely than males to have arthritis and asthma (at 16 per cent compared with 11 per cent and 13 per cent compared with 11 per cent, respectively).10 Women's greater predisposition towards arthritis can be largely explained by their propensity to live longer. While arthritis is not solely a disease of the elderly, it is true that older people are more likely to experience arthritic conditions.11
Women were also more likely than men to have mental and behavioural problems at 11 per cent compared with nine per cent.12
Men were much more likely to have experienced a long-term condition resulting from an injury at 15 per cent, compared with 10 per cent of women.13
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Social Trends
Males of all ages are ... more likely than females to experience injury. ... this difference reflects differences in the activities in which males and females typically engage, for example in the type of work men and women commonly do. In 2001, the industry that employed the greatest number of full-time male workers aged 15 years and over was the Manufacturing industry, which employed 719,200 men (78% of full-time workers in that industry). Just under 8% of these men reported being injured while working. In contrast, the industry employing the greatest number of fulltime female workers in the same age group was the Health and community services industry, which employed over 322,800 women (67% of the full-time workers in that industry). Under 2% of these women reported being injured at work.14
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003 National Health Survey, 2001, unpublished data, Canberra.
Mental health has been designated by State, Territory and Commonwealth Governments as one of seven National Health Priority Areas in recognition of its social and public health importance. In addition to the pain and disability which may be suffered by individuals, mental illness may also impact considerably upon their families or others close to them.15
In 1992 the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments of Australia endorsed the National Mental Health Strategy (NMHS). In developing the strategy it was recognised that there was a lack of adequate mental health research and data on the prevalence of mental disorders and the welfare of mentally ill people in the community.16
In December 1994 a workshop commissioned by the Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services (HFS) recommended the conduct of a national survey of mental health and wellbeing to meet this need. In 1997, the National Survey of (SMHWB) Mental Health and Wellbeing of Adults was conducted. Among the Survey's findings were:
Feelings of tension, distress or nervousness include agorophobia, social phobia, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Fear of being in public places from which it may be difficult to escape. Includes fears of leaving home, entering shops, crowds, or travelling in trains, buses or planes. A compelling desire to avoid the phobic situation is often prominent.
Unrealistic or excessive anxiety and worry about two or more life circumstances for six months or more during which the person has these concerns more days than not.
Obsessions are recurrent, persistent ideas, thoughts, images or impulses that intrude into the person's consciousness against their will. The person experiences these as being senseless or repugnant, but is unable to ignore or suppress them.
Compulsions are recurrent, sterotyped behaviours that are performed according to certain rules. The person often views them as preventing some unlikely event, often involving harm to, or caused by, him or herself. The person generally recognises the senselessness of the behaviour, attempts to resist it and does not derive pleasure from carrying out the activity.
The essential feature of this disorder is panic (anxiety) attacks that occur suddenly and unpredictably. A panic attack is a discrete episode of immense fear or discomfort.
A delayed and/or protracted response to a psychologically distressing event that is outside the range experience of usual human experience (i.e., outside the range of experiences such as bereavement, chronic illness, business losses and marital conflict). Experiencing such an event is usually associated with intense fear, terror, and helplessness. The characteristic symptoms involve re-experiencing the traumatic event (flashbacks), avoidance of situations or activities associated with the event, numbing of general responsiveness, and increased arousal.
A persistent, irrational fear of being the focus of attention, or fear of behaving in a way that will be embarrassing or humiliating. These fears arise in social situations such as meeting new people or speaking in public. A compelling desire to avoid the phobic situation may result.
A mood disturbance. Includes mania, hypomania, bipolar affective disorder, depression and dysthymia.
Characterised by repeated episodes in which the person's mood and activity levels are significantly disturbed - on some occasions lowered (depression) and on some occasions elevated (mania or hypomania).
A state of gloom, despondency or sadness lasting at least two weeks. The person usually suffers from low mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, and reduced energy. Their sleep, appetitie and concentration may be affected.
A disorder characterised by constant or constantly recurring chronic depression of mood, lasting at least two years, which is not sufficiently severe, or whose episodes are not sufficiently prolonged, to qualify as recurrent depressive disorder. The person feels tired and depressed, sleeps badly and feels inadequate, but is usually able to cope with the basic demands of everyday life.
A lesser degree of mania characterised by a persistent mild elevation of mood and increased activity lasting at least four days. Increased sociability, over-familiarity and a decreased need for sleep are often present, but not to the extent that they lead to severe disruption.
A disorder in which mood is happy, elevated, expansive or irritable out of keeping with the person's circumstances lasting at least seven days. The person may exhibit hyperactivity, inflated self-esteem, distractability and overfamiliar or reckless behaviour.
Australians, both female and male, tend to be positive about their health. In 1995 over half of the adult population (55 per cent for females and 54 per cent for males) assessed their health as excellent or very good. These figures had declined slightly by 2001 to 53 per cent of women and 50 per cent of men reporting excellent/very good health.
By contrast in 1995, 17 per cent of both women and men said their health was fair to poor. By 2001, those figures had increased slightly to 18 per cent for both women and men.
Risk factors whether "involuntary", or "modifiable" (such as stopping smoking or undertaking exercise) have been found to contribute greatly to disability and disease and thus to reduced length and quality of life in Australia. Health risk factors can be physiological, (eg. high blood pressure) environmental (eg. air pollution) or a matter of lifestyle choice (eg. smoking).18
According to the publication, Australian Social Trends, risk factors such as smoking, physical inactivity and being overweight or obesity, should not be viewed in isolation as "they interact with other risk factors and are rarely the sole contributor to a disease".19
The three health risk factors of smoking, overweight and obesity and lack of exercise are amongst the most significant factors impacting on current community health. Each risk factor will now be discussed.
The National Tobacco Strategy Occasional Paper, Cigarette Smoking Among Women in Australia provides the following history of Australian women smokers.
Until the early 20th century, Australian women on the whole did not smoke. Cigarette smoking was predominantly a male preserve and an activity strongly regarded as unfeminine. However, despite the strong social disapproval of women smoking, the number of women who smoked began to increase during the 1920s and 1930s. By 1945, 26 per cent of Australian women smoked cigarettes.20
Smoking is associated with an increased risk of:
coronary heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, other types of cancer and various respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.21
In 2001, 24 per cent of the adult population were current smokers. A greater proportion of men smoked daily, at 27 per cent, in comparison with 21 per cent of women. 22
As further outlined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics:
Smoking was consistently higher among men over the period 1989-90 to 2001, despite a slightly greater decline in smoking among men (down four percentage points) than women (down three percentage points) over this period. Of all women, those aged 18-24 experienced the greatest reduction in smoking (from 36 per cent to 27 per cent in 2001). While women aged 35-44 years experienced an increase (up from 25 per cent to 27 per cent).23
For many young people smoking has been associated with independence, risk-taking and a right of passage into adulthood. Hence, although the dangers of smoking are wellpublicised, each year the "take-up" rate for young people continues to rise. Young women can especially be attracted to smoking as it is widely perceived to be an aid to weight control.
The Occasional Paper, Cigarette Smoking Among Women in Australia, notes that children as young as nine were aware of the correlation between weight control and smoking.24
The Paper also noted that of current smokers:
while the financial and health benefits of quitting are acknowledged, women in particular, are concerned about gaining weight.25
As a final implication, the Paper recommends that campaigns targetted towards women and smoking should take into account concerns about potential weight gain after quitting.26
While smoking is one of the major risk factors impacting on health, alcohol and illicit drug use also contribute.
According to the National Health Survey, 2001, in the week prior to the Survey being conducted, the majority of adults (62 per cent) had consumed alcohol (71 per cent of males and 52 per cent of females). Of these persons, the proportion who consumed alcohol at a level which could endanger their health was 11 per cent. This was the same percentage as that recorded for 1989-90.27 The 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey found that males were more likely to drink on a daily basis than females at 11 per cent in comparison with six per cent.28
In 2001, over one third of the population aged 14 years and over had ever used an illicit drug in their life time such as marijuana, prescription drugs used for illicit purposes, inhalants, chemical or naturally occurring hallucinogens, amphetamines, ecstasy or heroin.
The age group with the highest proportion of those who had ever used or tried illicit drugs was that of 20-29 years, at 63 per cent. More than one-third of teenagers (38 per cent) had ever used an illicit drug.29
The Survey also found that:
Female teenagers are slightly more likely than male teenagers to have ever used an illicit drug. However, for all other age groups, males were more likely than females to have ever used an illicit drug.30
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, 2003, First Results, May 2002, Canberra.
With the exception of marijuana, which a third of the population had tried (33 per cent), the proportion of the community who had ever used illicit drugs in their lives was relativley low. However, the use of amphetamines, ecstasy and other designer drugs, and to a lesser extent, cocaine has trended upwards between 1993 and 2001.
A report, commissioned by the Australian Institute for Health and Welfare, Are all Australians gaining weight? Differentials in overweight and obesity among adults, 1989-90 to 2001, notes:
Overweight, and in particular obesity is an escalating public health problem in Australia, with analysis of survey data collected over the period 1980 to 2001 showing an alarming increase in prevalence31
The increasing preponderance for people to be overweight or obese is problematic because definite correlations have been made been being overweight or obese and a greater tendency to suffer such conditions as cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes, arthritis and other joint problems, gall bladder disease and some cancers.32
Some of the findings from the Are all Australians gaining weight? report include:
In discussing the increasing rates of overweight and obesity seen in contemporary society and some of the reasons for this trend, Ian Caterson in the Medical Journal of Australia summarises as follows:
... contributing causes [include] the genetic basis of obesity, (over) abundance of food, and our technological society with its emphasis on laboursaving devices, efficiency and time saving. We are less active in our everyday lives; it is not just that we are not exercising, but that the incidental activity of everyday life has been reduced or eliminated by technological advances. We don't walk as much, or as far, and we don't expend as much energy operating machinery or manual tools. Consequently, it has proved very difficult for many people to control their weight in the second half of the 20th century.34
The Australian Bureau of Statistics describes additional cultural changes which have also contributed to people's increasing propensity to retain weight. These are:
The BMI is calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared. A BMI of 25 or more indicates overweight, and 30 or more indicates obesity.
Caution should be exercised with the BMI. As the Australian Group, Body Image and Health Incorporated note, the idea of an "ideal weight" is not a helpful concept as "at best, Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist Circumference give us only an approximate guide to healthy weight levels".36
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, National Health Survey, 2001, unpublished data, Canberra.
In 2001, the National Health Survey found that:
In terms of exercise level, derived from information on exercise types (walking, moderate and vigorous exercise) and the frequency and duration of exercise, the majority of both males and females were classified to sedentary (including no exercise) and low exercise levels; 65 per cent of males and 74 per cent of females were in these categories.37
Based on frequency, intensity (i.e. walking, moderate exercise and vigorous exercise) and duration of exercise (for recreation, sport or fitness) in the two weeks prior to interview. From these components, an exercise score was derived using factors to represent the intensity of the exercise. Scores were grouped for output as follows:
Sedentary - Less than 100 (includes no exercise),
Low - 100 to less than 1,600
Moderate - 1,600-3,200, or more than 3200 but less than two hours of vigorous exercise
High - More than 3,200 and two hours or more of vigorous exercise.38
It is possible that women sacrifice activities such as recreation, sport and fitness in order to find time to undertake child care and domestic responsibilities. The Australian Bureau of Statistics Survey, How Australians Use Their Time, 1997, found that women were both more likely than men to engage in childcare and domestic work, and to spend more time on such activities.
Some comparative statistics from How Australians Use Their Time are as follows:
In addition to housework, cooking and child care, women generally spend more time than men caring for frail or elderly relatives.40
Socio-economic factors can have a direct impact on a person's general health along with his or her propensity to engage in behaviours detrimental to their health.
Adults from the most disadvantaged socio-economic areas (measured by the ABS in the Socio-Economic Index for Areas (SEIFA)) were more likely to smoke (34 per cent in 2001 compared with 17 per cent of adults from the least disadvantaged areas), were more likely to be physically inactive, at 40 per cent compared with 25 per cent, and, for women, were more likely to be overweight or obese at 19 per cent in comparison with 11 per cent of women from the least disadvantaged areas.
Interestingly, the reverse was found to be true for men. In 2001, 39 per cent of men from the least disadvantaged socio-economic areas were overweight compared with 35 per cent of men from the most disadvantaged socio-economic areas.41
The Socio-Economic Index for Areas (SEIFA) Index of Relative Socio- Economic Disadvantage uses a selection of weighted variables, such as income, educational attainment and employment, to determine the level of disadvantage of a geographic area. Households falling in the lower quintiles have lower index scores. This occurs when the area has a relatively high level of disadvantage, with a high proportion of people on low incomes, who have a low educational attainment, who are in unskilled occupations or who are unemployed. Households in the higher quintiles have higher scores, representing areas with relatively low levels of disadvantage, where there are smaller proportions of people with these characteristics.42
Osteoporosis is a damaging disease which affects many in the community. The following information on the condition is from Osteoporosis Australia.
Osteoporosis means "porous bones". Osteoporosis is a disease where bone density and structural quality deteriorate, leading to weakness and bone fragility of the skeleton and increase risk of fracture. Common sites to fracture are the wrist, hip, spine, pelvis and upper arm.
Collapsed spinal vertebrae can cause severe back pain, spinal deformities (increased thoracic kyphosis) and loss of height.
Bone loss is often gradual and without warning signs, until the disease is advanced. Bone is a living substance in which tissue is constantly breaking down and being regenerated. An essential mineral element in bone remodeling is calcium. Bones act as the body's calcium reserve, calcium is deposited or withdrawn daily, according to the body's needs.
There are three important factors that affect bone strength:
Bone strength can be measured by bone mineral density. Maximum or peak mass is achieved by the mid 20s. After the mid 30s, bones start to lose more calcium than is deposited and gradually lose strength. With increasing age, more bone is lost than is replaced so the outer shell weakens and the inner bone develops larger holes (becomes more porous). As this process occurs a danger level may be reached and the risk of fracture increases.
A combination of lifestyle, exercise, hormonal activity and nutrition all affect bone strength. Peak bone mass development occurs during childhood and adolescence, building stronger bones means greater protection against fractures in later life.
One in two women over the age of 60 will suffer a fracture due to Osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is more common in women because for 5-10 years following menopause there is a sharp decline in the female hormone oestrogen, which plays a central role in maintaining bone mass balance. This decrease in production of oestrogen accelerates calcium loss in bones.
One in three men over the age of 60 will suffer a fracture due to Osteoporosis. Testosterone, the male hormone, acts in a similar way to oestrogen in women for regulating bone health. Male testosterone levels can decrease with age which accelerates calcium loss in bones.
Preventive techniques towards averting the onset of osteoporosis include:
The following health issues and conditions (body image, eating disorders and anaemia), although not exclusively associated with women, impact more generally on women than men.
Body image is a description for how a person thinks and feels about his or her body.
We live in a culture which idealises fitness, (extreme) thinness and youth, across all types of media. In this environment it is difficult for many people to retain feelings of confidence and self esteem, if their body falls short of the perceived "ideal".
A person's existing negative body image can be further compounded by the confusion engendered by the modern retail shopping experience.
"I wish that size wasn't a marketing tool! So many shops 'play' with the sizing to fit their target market which is unfair and deceptive and to unsuspecting insecure females it can be tough. One of the worst feelings is to go into a change room with a 14 and have trouble! And have to admit you need a bigger size! Going in different shops can fluctuate 2-3 sizes".44
Negative body images may contribute to eating disorders.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are two serious eating disorders. As the Department of Health's publication, What is an Eating disorder? outlines:
The physical effects of anorexia and bulimia can be extremely serious if not treated and can include:
Why am I so tired48
Anaemia occurs when the concentration of the body's red blood cells, or the oxygen-carrying pigment contained in them, haemoglobin, falls below normal levels.49
Anaemia is a debilitating condition typified by a range of symptoms including:
One of the most common forms of anaemia, iron deficiency anaemia, has particular impact on women. Iron deficiency anaemia is most commonly found in menstruating women, pregnant women and women who are breastfeeding.
According to Women's Health Australia:
Concern about iron deficiency among women arises from anecdotal and clinical evidence suggesting that it is a common problem. However, very little is known about the prevalence of iron deficiency or its effects on the lives of ordinary adult women. A very high proportion of women describe themselves as 'always tired' ... which illustrates the frequency of this syndrome.51
Women's Health Australia further notes that:
... a high proportion of Australian women are iron deficient and that the effects on well-being and ability to cope with everyday life are considerable.52
The Victorian Government reports that up to:
Around one in five menstruating women and half of all pregnant women are anaemic.53
If left untreated, severe anaemia can be a chronic and debilitating illness.
In 2001, the two favoured contraceptive methods for women aged 18-49 years and who were sexually active, were oral contraceptives (27 per cent) and condoms (23 per cent).
The popularity of different contraceptive methods varied over age-groups. For instance, of women aged 18-24, 43 per cent used oral contraceptives (as their preferred method) while another 36 per cent used condoms. In contrast, older women were more likely to rely on sterilisation to prevent conception. Of women aged 40-44, 22 per cent had partners who had been sterilised, while of women aged 45-49, 21 per cent had a sterilised partner and a further 21 per cent had had a tubal ligation/tubes tied.
(a) Reported contraceptive practices of self and/or partner.
(b) Use for protection or contraception purposes. Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003 National Health Survey, 2001 (Cat. no. 4364.0), Canberra.
According to the Department of Health, Victoria:
... the odds of a young [that is, aged less than 40] fertile couple conceiving by having sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation are approximately one in five every month. A couple isn't suspected of fertility problems until they have tried, and failed, to conceive for one year. Approximately 20 per cent of couples experience difficulties54
The Victorian Department of Health notes that around 40 per cent of fertility problems among couples originate in the woman and 40 per cent originate in the man. The remainder of fertility problems for couples investigated for infertility idiopathic infertility) do not have an identifiable cause.
Common fertility problems for women and men include:
In 2001/2002 the Australian Study of Health and Relationships was conducted by telephone interview with over 19,000 respondents. The Study was a joint initiative by the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University; the Central Sydney Area Health Service; the National Centre in HIV Social Research, the University of New South Wales; and the National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, the University of New South Wales.
Among much other information, the Study found that a high proportion of respondents had experienced a range of sexual difficulties over the last year.
* As experienced for at least one month in the previous year. Source: Sex in Australia, Summary findings of the Australian Study of Health and Relationships, 2002, www.latrobe.edu.au, viewed: 2 April 2004.
According to the Australian Study of Health and Relationships, 2002:
Overall, 20.2 per cent of men and 16.9 per cent of women had ever been diagnosed with a sexually transmissable infection or blood-borne virus, and 2.0 per cent and 2.2 per cent respectively had been diagnosed in the last year. The most commonly diagnosed sexually transmissable infection among women was candidiasis or thrush (31.9 per cent of respondents).
The next most commonly sexually transmissible infections among men and women were pubic lice or crabs (7.1 per cent), genital warts (4.2 per cent), chlamydia (2.4 per cent), herpes (2.3 per cent) and gonohorroea (1.4 per cent). Overall, 1.8 per cent of respondents had been diagnosed with hepatitus A, 0.7 per cent had been diagnosed with hepatitus B, and 0.5 per cent had been diagnosed with hepatitus C.56
1 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002, Measuring Australia's Progress, 2002, (Cat. No. 1370.0), Canberra.
2 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Deaths 2002, (Cat. no. 3302.0), Canberra.
3 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 1.
4 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
5 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 2.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Deaths from External Causes, 2002, (Cat. No. 3320.0), Helps, Cripps & Harrison, Canberra.
10 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, National Health Survey, 2001 (Cat. no. 4364.0), Canberra.
11 Arthritis Foundation New South Wales, Who gets Arthritis, viewed 17 March 2004. http://www.arthritisnsw.org.au/.
12 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 10.
13 Ibid.
14 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Australian Social Trends, 2003 (Cat. No 4102.0), Canberra.
15 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Mental Health and Wellbeing: Profile of Adults, Australia, 1998 (Cat. No. 4326.0), Canberra.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003, Australian Social Trends, 2003, Health Risk Factors Among Adults (Cat. no. 4102.0), Canberra.
19 Ibid.
20 http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/publicat/document/smoking_women.pdf, viewed 15 April 2004.
21 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 18.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/publicat/document/smoking_women.pdf, viewed 15 April 2004.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 10.
28 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, 2003, First Results, May 2002, Canberra.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare http://www.aihw.gov.auaus/bulletin11/index.html, viewed 5 April 2004.
32 Women's Health Australia, 2001, What do we know? What do we need to know?, Progress on the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, 1995-2000, Ed. Lee, C. Newcastle.
33 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, above n 31.
34 Caterson, I, What should we do about overweight and obesity in The Medical Journal of Australia, December 1999, 171, 599-600.
35 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 18.
37 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 10.
38 Ibid.
39 http://www.abs.gov.au, Media Release - 4153.0 ABS Time Use Survey Shows How We Spend Our Day, viewed 5 April 2004. 5 April 2004.
40 Women's Health Australia, 2001, What do we know? What do we need to know?, Progress on the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, 1995-2000, Ed. Lee, C. Newcastle.
41 Australian Bureau of Statistics, above n 14.
42 Ibid.
43 Osteoporsosis Australia, http://www.osteoporosis.org.au, viewed 6 April 2004.
44 Young Women's Christian Association, Adelaide, 2002 Girlstalk Body Image Survey, http://www.ywca.org.au, viewed 31 March 2004.
45 http://www.health.gov.au, What is an Eating disorder?, viewed 31 March 2004.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 Women's Health Australia, above n 40.
49 http://www.mydr.com.au, viewed 31 March 2004.
50 http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/(Pages)/Anaemia, viewed 31 March 2004.
51 Women's Health Australia, above n 40.
52 Ibid.
53 Above n 50.
54 http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Infertility_female, viewed 15 April 2004.
55 Ibid.
56 Sex in Australia, Summary findings of the Australian Study of Health and Relationships, 2002, http://www.latrobe.edu.au, viewed 2 April 2004.
| Age group (years) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 65 | Total 15 | |||||||
| and | and | |||||||
| Disability status, 1998 | Units | 15-24 | 25-34 | 35-44 | 45-54 | 55-64 | over | over(a) |
| Women | '000 | 1305.4 | 1438.9 | 1445.5 | 1208.1 | 795.9 | 1278.0 | 7471.8 |
| Without disability | % | 92.3 | 90.2 | 85.4 | 77.2 | 66.2 | 46.2 | 77.4 |
| With disability | % | 7.7 | 9.8 | 14.6 | 22.8 | 33.8 | 53.8 | 22.6 |
| Disability with schooling | ||||||||
| or employment restriction | % | 4.7 | 6.9 | 11.0 | 16.3 | 21.4 | .. | 11.1(a) |
| Disability with core | ||||||||
| activity restriction(b)(c) | % | 4.6 | 6.6 | 10.9 | 17.4 | 27.8 | 50.1 | 18.5 |
| Profound | % | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 2.4 | 17.2 | 3.9 |
| Severe | % | 0.8 | 1.9 | 3.0 | 5.1 | 6.2 | 7.8 | 3.9 |
| Moderate | % | 0.6 | 1.4 | 3.1 | 4.9 | 8.6 | 9.0 | 4.2 |
| Mild | % | 2.3 | 2.7 | 3.9 | 5.8 | 10.7 | 16.1 | 6.5 |
| Men | '000 | 1364.4 | 1438.4 | 1437.5 | 1234.9 | 808.0 | 993.0 | 7276.4 |
| Without disability | % | 90.5 | 88.5 | 84.3 | 77.7 | 63.6 | 45.9 | 77.6 |
| With disability | % | 9.5 | 11.5 | 15.7 | 22.3 | 36.4 | 54.1 | 22.4 |
| Disability with schooling | ||||||||
| or employment restriction | % | 6.3 | 8.0 | 11.3 | 16.9 | 26.3 | .. | 12.5(a) |
| Disability with core | ||||||||
| activity restriction(b)(c) | % | 5.7 | 7.4 | 10.3 | 16.8 | 28.5 | 47.0 | 17.0 |
| Profound | % | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 2.6 | 10.1 | 2.3 |
| Severe | % | 1.4 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 4.6 | 6.0 | 6.3 | 3.3 |
| Moderate | % | 1.1 | 1.5 | 3.1 | 5.6 | 8.0 | 11.2 | 4.5 |
| Mild | % | 2.5 | 3.4 | 4.1 | 5.7 | 11.9 | 19.5 | 6.9 |
| Age group (years) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 65 | Total 15 | |||||||
| and | and | |||||||
| Mental disorders, 1997 | Units | 15-24 | 25-34 | 35-44 | 45-54 | 55-64 | over | over |
| Women | '000 | 896.5 | 1427.9 | 1423.0 | 1168.5 | 777.5 | 1144.3 | 6837.7 |
| No mental disorders | % | 74.1 | 78.8 | 79.8 | 80.5 | 86.6 | 93.3 | 82.0 |
| With mental disorders(c)(d) | % | 25.9 | 21.2 | 20.2 | 19.5 | 13.4 | 6.7 | 18.0 |
| Anxiety disorders | % | 13.8 | 12.4 | 14.5 | 15.9 | 9.5 | 5.4 | 12.1 |
| Affective disorders(e) | % | 10.7 | 8.4 | 8.5 | 7.3 | 6.9 | 2.4 | 7.4 |
| Substance use disorders | % | 10.6 | 7.0 | 4.5 | 3.2 | *1.2 | ** | 4.5 |
| Men | '000 | 921.9 | 1405.8 | 1401.0 | 1189.3 | 781.2 | 927.8 | 6627.1 |
| No mental disorders | % | 72.7 | 78.6 | 80.4 | 84.4 | 88.7 | 94.5 | 82.6 |
| With mental disorders(c)(d) | % | 27.3 | 21.4 | 19.6 | 15.6 | 11.3 | 5.5 | 17.4 |
| Anxiety disorders | % | 8.6 | 7.1 | 8.3 | 8.0 | 6.1 | 3.5 | 7.1 |
| Affective disorders(e) | % | 2.9 | 4.9 | 6.0 | 5.4 | 3.2 | *0.8 | 4.2 |
| Substance use disorders | % | 21.5 | 15.6 | 12.0 | 7.4 | 5.2 | 2.1 | 11.1 |
(a) Population aged 15- 64 years.
(b) Restrictions related to communication, mobility or self care activities. The level of restriction is based on the degree of difficulty reported for these activities.
(c) Total may be less than the sum of the components as persons may have more than one disability or mental disorder.
(d) Prevalence of the disorders listed for the previous 12 months. Due to the nature of some illnesses, not all disorders could be reliably collected.
(e) Includes depression.
*Estimates of the relative standard error between 25% and 50%.
**Estimates of the relative standard error greater than 50%.
***Please note, this is the most current ABS disability and carer data available at time of writing.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Survey of Disibility, Ageing and Carers, 1998 unpublished data;
Mental Health and Wellbeing: Profile of Adults, Australia, 1997 (Cat. No. 4326.0).
| Age group (years) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0-14 | 15-34 | 35-54 | 55-64 | 65 and | All | |
| over | persons | |||||
| % | % | % | % | % | % | |
| Females | ||||||
| Arthritis | **0.0 | 3.2 | 15.5 | 38.9 | 53.5 | 16.1 |
| Asthma | 11.5 | 16.0 | 11.5 | 12.2 | 9.7 | 12.6 |
| Heart disease(b) | - | - | *0.5 | 3.3 | 9.2 | 1.7 |
| Diabetes mellitus | **0.2 | *0.6 | 2.0 | 7.7 | 11.3 | 3.0 |
| Cancer(c) | *0.2 | 0.7 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 3.4 | 1.0 |
| Injuries(d) | 1.4 | 10.6 | 14.5 | 14.7 | 10.3 | 10.2 |
| Mental and | ||||||
| behavioural problems | 5.4 | 13.3 | 12.6 | 11.3 | 8.1 | 10.6 |
| Males | ||||||
| Arthritis | *0.2 | 2.6 | 12.0 | 27.7 | 38.1 | 11.1 |
| Asthma | 15.1 | 12.8 | 7.5 | 6.9 | 7.7 | 10.6 |
| Heart disease(b) | - | - | 1.3 | 5.0 | 12.2 | 2.2 |
| Diabetes mellitus | *0.2 | *0.4 | 2.3 | 9.8 | 10.2 | 2.9 |
| Cancer(c) | - | *0.3 | 1.8 | 3.5 | 8.3 | 1.8 |
| Injuries(d) | 1.7 | 13.7 | 22.8 | 23.2 | 16.9 | 15.0 |
| Mental and | ||||||
| behavioural problems | 7.7 | 8.5 | 9.7 | 9.4 | 6.2 | 8.5 |
(a) Conditions which have lasted or are expected to last for six months or more.
(b) Includes Ischaemic heart diseases and other heart diseases.
(c) Includes malignant neoplasms.
(d) Includes injuries as a long-term condition/injury related condition. For example, fractures, sprains and strains, injury to internal
organs, torn ligaments, burns and scalds.
*Estimates of the relative standard error between 25% and 50%.
**Estimates of the relative standard error greater than 50%.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, National Health Survey, 2001 unpublished data.
| Units | 18-24 | 25-34 | 35-44 | 45-54 | 55-64 | 65-74 | 75 | ||
| and over | |||||||||
| Females | |||||||||
| Daily smoker | % | 25 | 26 | 24 | 19 | 15 | 9 | 4 | |
| High risk alcohol intake | % | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |
| Sedentary/low exercise | % | 70 | 71 | 76 | 73 | 71 | 76 | 85 | |
| Weight | |||||||||
| Underweight | % | 11 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | |
| Normal range | % | 58 | 55 | 51 | 44 | 36 | 37 | 43 | |
| Overweight | % | 13 | 18 | 21 | 26 | 31 | 32 | 24 | |
| Obese | % | 7 | 14 | 14 | 19 | 22 | 20 | 11 | |
| Males | |||||||||
| Daily smoker | % | 31 | 33 | 30 | 23 | 21 | 12 | 7 | |
| High risk alcohol intake | % | 6 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 1 | |
| Sedentary/low exercise | % | 52 | 62 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 63 | 74 | |
| Weight | |||||||||
| Underweight | % | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |
| Normal range | % | 57 | 45 | 35 | 31 | 29 | 35 | 45 | |
| Overweight | % | 26 | 37 | 41 | 44 | 47 | 45 | 35 | |
| Obese | % | 8 | 12 | 18 | 19 | 18 | 15 | 9 |
Source: National Health Survey, 2001 (Cat. no. 4364.0) T27.
| Units | Females | Males | Persons | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1995 | 2001 | 1995 | 2001 | 1995 | 2001 | ||
| Excellent | % | 19.3 | 19.2 | 19.3 | 18.5 | 19.4 | 18.9 |
| Very good | % | 35.5 | 33.8 | 34.7 | 31.7 | 35.1 | 32.8 |
| Good | % | 28.4 | 29.1 | 28.6 | 31.5 | 28.5 | 30.2 |
| Fair | % | 12.9 | 13.2 | 12.9 | 13.4 | 12.9 | 13.3 |
| Poor | % | 3.9 | 4.6 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 4.8 |
| Total | % | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Source: National Health Survey (Cat. no. 4364.0) T3.
| Type of action | Units | Females | Males |
| Hospital inpatient(b) | '000 | 86.0 | 75.1 |
| Visited | |||
| Casualty/emergency | '000 | 96.4 | 95.7 |
| Outpatients | '000 | 183.0 | 184.3 |
| Day clinic | '000 | 237.3 | 203.9 |
| Consultation with | |||
| Doctor(c) | '000 | 2619.1 | 2012.1 |
| Dentist | '000 | 632.0 | 523.4 |
| OHP(d) | '000 | 1467.4 | 1015.2 |
| Days away from work or study | '000 | 783.4 | 785.2 |
| Other days of reduced activity | '000 | 1154.6 | 896.0 |
| Total who took an action(e) | '000 | 4485.4 | 3753.7 |
| Took no action(f) | '000 | 5065.9 | 5791.2 |
| Total | '000 | 9551.4 | 9364.9 |
Source: National Health Survey, 2001 (Cat. no. 4364.0) T15
(a) Actions taken in the two weeks prior to interview for the survey
(b) Persons discharged from hospital in the 2 weeks prior to interview
(c) Includes General Practitioners and Specialists
(d) Other health professionals, for example, Chemist (for advice) Chiropractor, Optician, Social Worker, Psychologist, Speech therapist
(e) Persons may have reported more than one type of action and therefore components may not add to totals
(f) Took none of the actions covered in this survey
| Age group (years) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Units | ||||||||
| '000 | 18-24 | 25-29 | 30-34 | 35-39 | 40-44 | 45-49 | Total | |
| Contraceptive practices(a) | ||||||||
| Use condoms(b) | '000 | 313.1 | 210.8 | 189.4 | 151.4 | 93.4 | 61.5 | 1019.6 |
| Use oral contraceptives | '000 | 376.8 | 279.2 | 215.4 | 165.5 | 107.1 | 53.5 | 1197.4 |
| Use an IUD | '000 | **2.3 | *3.8 | *11.5 | *14.7 | *12.9 | *7.6 | 52.8 |
| Use a diaphragm | '000 | np | *3.5 | *4.6 | *7.9 | *4.0 | np | 22.4 |
| Use natural, rhythm | ||||||||
| or billings method | '000 | *12.5 | 21.2 | 35.7 | 35.4 | 29.7 | *13.6 | 148.1 |
| Use withdrawal method | '000 | 84.2 | 57.5 | 69.0 | 40.5 | 27.3 | *14.0 | 292.5 |
| Had a contraceptive injection | '000 | 17.9 | 17.5 | 19.2 | *9.1 | *14.0 | *4.9 | 82.6 |
| Take the morning after pill | '000 | 47.5 | *15.2 | *12.8 | **2.6 | np | np | 81.7 |
| Had a tubal ligation/tubes tied | '000 | np | np | 34.8 | 79.3 | 117.9 | 139.6 | 383.3 |
| Partner has been sterilised | '000 | *3.8 | 15.6 | 48.8 | 125.9 | 159.7 | 144.1 | 498.0 |
| Had a hysterectomy | '000 | np | np | *6.9 | 30.1 | 63.4 | 109.0 | 211.2 |
| Menopause | '000 | np | np | **2.7 | *7.1 | 26.6 | 142.2 | 180.1 |
| Self or partner infertile | '000 | *2.6 | *11.3 | *14.1 | *14.9 | 17.5 | 17.0 | 77.5 |
| Other | '000 | *9.1 | *5.5 | *5.5 | *6.3 | **2.7 | **2.4 | 31.5 |
| Not sexually active | '000 | 142.8 | 60.6 | 50.4 | 63.4 | 64.0 | 66.2 | 447.4 |
| None of these apply | '000 | 98.3 | 90.0 | 109.5 | 67.0 | 58.8 | 52.9 | 476.5 |
| Not stated | '000 | 73.9 | 68.2 | 59.3 | 67.5 | 79.1 | 80.1 | 428.0 |
| Total(c) | '000 | 872.9 | 691.4 | 733.7 | 745.2 | 739.4 | 677.8 | 4460.4 |
(a) Reported contraceptive practices of self and/or partner, for women aged 18-49 years.
(b) Used for protection or contraception practices.
(c) Persons may have reported more than one type of contraceptive practice and therefore components may not add to totals.
*Estimates of the relative standard error between 25% and 50%.
**Estimates of the relative standard error greater than 50%.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, National Health Survey 2001, unpublished.
| Women in Australia 2004 | Chapter 3. Health |